v/doc/docs.md

V Documentation

Introduction

V is a statically typed compiled programming language designed for building maintainable software.

It's similar to Go and its design has also been influenced by Oberon, Rust, Swift, and Python.

V is a very simple language. Going through this documentation will take you about half an hour, and by the end of it you will have pretty much learned the entire language.

The language promotes writing simple and clear code with minimal abstraction.

Despite being simple, V gives the developer a lot of power. Anything you can do in other languages, you can do in V.

Table of Contents

Hello world Comments Functions Returning multiple values Symbol visibility Variables Types Strings Numbers Arrays Maps Module imports Statements & expressions If In operator For loop Match Defer Structs Embedded structs Default field values Short struct literal syntax Access modifiers Methods

println Functions 2 Pure functions by default Mutable arguments Anonymous & high order functions References Modules Constants Types 2 Interfaces Enums Sum types Option/Result types & error handling Generics Concurrency Decoding JSON Testing Memory management ORM

Writing documentation Tools vfmt Profiling Advanced Memory-unsafe code Calling C functions from V Debugging generated C code Conditional compilation Compile time pseudo variables Reflection via codegen Limited operator overloading Inline assembly Translating C/C++ to V Hot code reloading Cross compilation Cross-platform shell scripts in V Attributes Appendices Keywords Operators

Hello World

fn main() {
    println('hello world')
}

Save that snippet into a file hello.v . Now do: v run hello.v .

That is assuming you have symlinked your V with v symlink, as described here. If you have not yet, you have to type the path to V manually.

Congratulations - you just wrote your first V program, and executed it!

You can compile a program without execution with v hello.v. See v help for all supported commands.

In the above example, you can see that functions are declared with fn. The return type goes after the function name. In this case main doesn't return anything, so the return type can be omitted.

As in many other languages (such as C, Go and Rust), main is an entry point.

println is one of the few built-in functions. It prints the value passed to it to standard output.

fn main() declaration can be skipped in one file programs. This is useful when writing small programs, "scripts", or just learning the language. For brevity, fn main() will be skipped in this tutorial.

This means that a "hello world" program can be as simple as

println('hello world')

Comments

// This is a single line comment.

/* This is a multiline comment.
   /* It can be nested. */
*/

Functions

fn main() {
    println(add(77, 33))
    println(sub(100, 50))
}

fn add(x int, y int) int {
    return x + y
}

fn sub(x, y int) int {
    return x - y
}

Again, the type comes after the argument's name.

Just like in Go and C, functions cannot be overloaded. This simplifies the code and improves maintainability and readability.

Functions can be used before their declaration: add and sub are declared after main, but can still be called from main. This is true for all declarations in V and eliminates the need for header files or thinking about the order of files and declarations.

Returning multiple values

fn foo() (int, int) {
    return 2, 3
}

a, b := foo()
println(a) // 2
println(b) // 3
c, _ := foo() // ignore values using `_`

Symbol visibility

pub fn public_function() {
}

fn private_function() {
}

Functions are private (not exported) by default. To allow other modules to use them, prepend pub. The same applies to constants and types.

Variables

name := 'Bob'
age := 20
large_number := i64(9999999999)
println(name)
println(age)
println(large_number)

Variables are declared and initialized with :=. This is the only way to declare variables in V. This means that variables always have an initial value.

The variable's type is inferred from the value on the right hand side. To choose a different type, use type conversion: the expression T(v) converts the value v to the type T.

Unlike most other languages, V only allows defining variables in functions. Global (module level) variables are not allowed. There's no global state in V (see Pure functions by default for details).

Mutable variables

mut age := 20
println(age)
age = 21
println(age)

To change the value of the variable use =. In V, variables are immutable by default. To be able to change the value of the variable, you have to declare it with mut.

Try compiling the program above after removing mut from the first line.

Initialization vs assignment

Note the (important) difference between := and = := is used for declaring and initializing, = is used for assigning.

fn main() {
    age = 21
}

This code will not compile, because the variable age is not declared. All variables need to be declared in V.

fn main() {
    age := 21
}

Declaration errors

In development mode the compiler will warn you that you haven't used the variable (you'll get an "unused variable" warning). In production mode (enabled by passing the -prod flag to v – v -prod foo.v) it will not compile at all (like in Go).

fn main() {
    a := 10
    if true {
        a := 20 // error: shadowed variable
    }
    // warning: unused variable `a`
}

Unlike most languages, variable shadowing is not allowed. Declaring a variable with a name that is already used in a parent scope will cause a compilation error.

Types

Primitive types

bool

string

i8    i16  int  i64      i128 (soon)
byte  u16  u32  u64      u128 (soon)

rune // represents a Unicode code point

f32 f64

any_int, any_float // internal intermediate types of number literals

byteptr, voidptr, charptr, size_t // these are mostly used for C interoperability

any // similar to C's void* and Go's interface{}

Please note that unlike C and Go, int is always a 32 bit integer.

There is an exceptions to the rule that all operators in V must have values of the same type on both sides. A small primitive type on one side can be automatically promoted if it fits completely into the data range of the type on the other side. These are the allowed possibilities:

   i8 → i16 → int → i64
                  ↘     ↘
                    f32 → f64
                  ↗     ↗
 byte → u16 → u32 → u64 ⬎
      ↘     ↘     ↘      ptr
   i8 → i16 → int → i64 ⬏

An int value for example can be automatically promoted to f64 or i64 but not to f32 or u32. (f32 would mean precision loss for large values and u32 would mean loss of the sign for negative values).

Strings

name := 'Bob'
println('Hello, $name!')  // `$` is used for string interpolation
println(name.len)

bobby := name + 'by' // + is used to concatenate strings
println(bobby) // "Bobby"

println(bobby[1..3]) // "ob"
mut s := 'hello '
s += 'world' // `+=` is used to append to a string
println(s) // "hello world"

In V, a string is a read-only array of bytes. String data is encoded using UTF-8.

Strings are immutable.

Both single and double quotes can be used to denote strings. For consistency, vfmt converts double quotes to single quotes unless the string contains a single quote character.

Interpolation syntax is pretty simple. It also works with fields: 'age = $user.age'. If you need more complex expressions, use ${}: 'can register = ${user.age > 13}'.

Format specifiers similar to those in C's printf() are also supported. f, g, x, etc. are optional and specify the output format. The compiler takes care of the storage size, so there is no hd or llu.

println('x = ${x:12.3f}')
println('${item:-20} ${n:20d}')

All operators in V must have values of the same type on both sides. This code will not compile if age is not a string (for example if age were an int):

println('age = ' + age)

We have to either convert age to a string:

println('age = ' + age.str())

or use string interpolation (preferred):

println('age = $age')

To denote character literals, use `

a := `a`
assert 'aloha!'[0] == `a`

For raw strings, prepend r. Raw strings are not escaped:

s := r'hello\nworld'
println(s) // "hello\nworld"

Numbers

a := 123

This will assign the value of 123 to a. By default a will have the type int.

You can also use hexadecimal, binary or octal notation for integer literals:

a := 0x7B
b := 0b01111011
c := 0o173

All of these will be assigned the same value, 123. They will all have type int, no matter what notation you used.

V also supports writing numbers with _ as separator:

num := 1_000_000 // same as 1000000
three := 0b0_11 // same as 0b11
float_num := 3_122.55  // same as 3122.55
hexa := 0xF_F // same as 255
oct := 0o17_3 // same as 0o173

If you want a different type of integer, you can use casting:

a := i64(123)
b := byte(42)
c := i16(12345)

Assigning floating point numbers works the same way:

f := 1.0
f1 := f64(3.14)
f2 := f32(3.14)

If you do not specify the type explicitly, by default float literals will have the type of f64.

Arrays

mut nums := [1, 2, 3]
println(nums) // "[1, 2, 3]"
println(nums[1]) // "2"
nums[1] = 5
println(nums) // "[1, 5, 3]"

println(nums.len) // "3"
nums = [] // The array is now empty
println(nums.len) // "0"

// Declare an empty array:
users := []int{}

The type of an array is determined by the first element:

• [1, 2, 3] is an array of ints ([]int).
• ['a', 'b'] is an array of strings ([]string).

If V is unable to infer the type of an array, the user can explicitly specify it for the first element: [byte(16), 32, 64, 128]. V arrays are homogeneous (all elements must have the same type). This means that code like [1, 'a'] will not compile.

The .len field returns the length of the array. Note that it's a read-only field, and it can't be modified by the user. Exported fields are read-only by default in V. See Access modifiers.

Array operations

mut nums := [1, 2, 3]
nums << 4
println(nums) // "[1, 2, 3, 4]"

// append array
nums << [5, 6, 7]
println(nums) // "[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]"

mut names := ['John']
names << 'Peter'
names << 'Sam'
// names << 10  <-- This will not compile. `names` is an array of strings.
println(names.len) // "3"
println('Alex' in names) // "false"

<< is an operator that appends a value to the end of the array. It can also append an entire array.

val in array returns true if the array contains val. See in operator.

Initializing array properties

During initialization you can specify the capacity of the array (cap), its initial length (len), and the default element (init):

arr := []int{ len: 5, init: -1 } // `[-1, -1, -1, -1, -1]`

Setting the capacity improves performance of insertions, as it reduces the number of reallocations needed:

mut numbers := []int{ cap: 1000 }
println(numbers.len) // 0
// Now appending elements won't reallocate
for i in 0 .. 1000 {
    numbers << i
}

Note: The above code uses a range for statement.

Array methods

All arrays can be easily printed with println(arr) and converted to a string with s := arr.str().

Arrays can be efficiently filtered and mapped with the .filter() and .map() methods:

nums := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
even := nums.filter(it % 2 == 0)
println(even) // [2, 4, 6]

words := ['hello', 'world']
upper := words.map(it.to_upper())
println(upper) // ['HELLO', 'WORLD']

it is a builtin variable which refers to element currently being processed in filter/map methods.

Maps

mut m := map[string]int // Only maps with string keys are allowed for now
m['one'] = 1
m['two'] = 2
println(m['one']) // "1"
println(m['bad_key']) // "0"
println('bad_key' in m) // Use `in` to detect whether such key exists
m.delete('two')

// Short syntax
numbers := {
    'one': 1
    'two': 2
}

Module imports

For information about creating a module, see Modules

Importing a module

Modules can be imported using keyword import.

import os

fn main() {
    name := os.input('Enter your name:')
    println('Hello, $name!')
}

When using constants from other modules, the module name must be prefixed. However, you can import functions and types from other modules directly:

import os { input }
import crypto.sha256 { sum }
import time { Time }

Module import aliasing

Any imported module name can be aliased using the as keyword:

NOTE: this example will not compile unless you have created mymod/sha256.v

import crypto.sha256
import mymod.sha256 as mysha256

fn main() {
    v_hash := sha256.sum('hi'.bytes()).hex()
    my_hash := mysha256.sum('hi'.bytes()).hex()
    assert my_hash == v_hash
}

You cannot alias an imported function or type. However, you can redeclare a type.

import time

type MyTime time.Time

fn main() {
    my_time := MyTime{
        year: 2020,
        month: 12,
        day: 25
    }
    println(my_time.unix_time())
}

Statements & expressions

If

a := 10
b := 20
if a < b {
    println('$a < $b')
} else if a > b {
    println('$a > $b')
} else {
    println('$a == $b')
}

if statements are pretty straightforward and similar to most other languages. Unlike other C-like languages, there are no parentheses surrounding the condition, and the braces are always required.

if can be used as an expression:

num := 777
s := if num % 2 == 0 {
    'even'
}
else {
    'odd'
}
println(s) // "odd"

Is check

You can check sum types using if like matching them.

struct Abc {
    val string
}
struct Xyz {
    foo string
}
type Alphabet = Abc | Xyz

x := Alphabet(Abc{'test'}) // sum type
if x is Abc {
    // x is automatically castet to Abc and can be used here
    println(x)
}

If you have a struct field which should be checked, there is also a way to name a alias.

if x.bar is MyStruct as bar {
    // x.bar cannot be castet automatically, instead you say "as bar" which creates a variable with the MyStruct typing
    println(bar)
}

In operator

in allows to check whether an array or a map contains an element.

nums := [1, 2, 3]
println(1 in nums) // true

m := {'one': 1, 'two': 2}
println('one' in m) // true

It's also useful for writing clearer and more compact boolean expressions:

if parser.token == .plus || parser.token == .minus ||
    parser.token == .div || parser.token == .mult {
    ...
}

if parser.token in [.plus, .minus, .div, .mult] {
    ...
}

V optimizes such expressions, so both if statements above produce the same machine code and no arrays are created.

For loop

V has only one looping keyword: for, with several forms.

Array for

numbers := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
for num in numbers {
    println(num)
}
names := ['Sam', 'Peter']
for i, name in names {
    println('$i) $name')  // Output: 0) Sam
}                         //         1) Peter

The for value in arr form is used for going through elements of an array. If an index is required, an alternative form for index, value in arr can be used.

Note, that the value is read-only. If you need to modify the array while looping, you have to use indexing:

mut numbers := [0, 1, 2]
for i, _ in numbers {
    numbers[i]++
}
println(numbers) // [1, 2, 3]

When an identifier is just a single underscore, it is ignored.

Range for

// Prints '01234'
for i in 0..5 {
    print(i)
}

low..high means an exclusive range, which represents all values from low up to but not including high.

Condition for

mut sum := 0
mut i := 0
for i <= 100 {
    sum += i
    i++
}
println(sum) // "5050"

This form of the loop is similar to while loops in other languages. The loop will stop iterating once the boolean condition evaluates to false. Again, there are no parentheses surrounding the condition, and the braces are always required.

Bare for

mut num := 0
for {
    num += 2
    if num >= 10 {
        break
    }
}
println(num) // "10"

The condition can be omitted, resulting in an infinite loop.

C for

for i := 0; i < 10; i += 2 {
    // Don't print 6
    if i == 6 {
        continue
    }
    println(i)
}

Finally, there's the traditional C style for loop. It's safer than the while form because with the latter it's easy to forget to update the counter and get stuck in an infinite loop.

Here i doesn't need to be declared with mut since it's always going to be mutable by definition.

Match

os := 'windows'
print('V is running on ')
match os {
    'darwin' { println('macOS.') }
    'linux'  { println('Linux.') }
    else     { println(os) }
}

A match statement is a shorter way to write a sequence of if - else statements. When a matching branch is found, the following statement block will be run. The else branch will be run when no other branches match.

number := 2
s := match number {
    1    { 'one' }
    2    { 'two' }
    else { 'many'}
}

A match expression returns the final expression from each branch.

enum Color {
    red
    blue
    green
}

fn is_red_or_blue(c Color) bool {
    return match c {
        .red   { true  }
        .blue  { true  }
        .green { false }
    }
}

A match statement can also be used to branch on the variants of an enum by using the shorthand .variant_here syntax. An else branch is not allowed when all the branches are exhaustive.

c := `v`
typ := match c {
    `0`...`9` { 'digit' }
    `A`...`Z` { 'uppercase' }
    `a`...`z` { 'lowercase' }
    else      { 'other' }
}
println(typ) // 'lowercase'

You can also use ranges as match patterns. If the value falls within the range of a branch, that branch will be executed.

Note that the ranges use ... (three dots) rather than .. (two dots). This is because the range is inclusive of the last element, rather than exclusive (as .. ranges are). Using .. in a match branch will throw an error.

Defer

A defer statement defers the execution of a block of statements until the surrounding function returns.

fn read_log() {
    f := os.open('log.txt')
    defer { f.close() }
    ...
    if !ok {
        // defer statement will be called here, the file will be closed
        return
    }
    ...
    // defer statement will be called here, the file will be closed
}

Structs

struct Point {
    x int
    y int
}

mut p := Point{
    x: 10
    y: 20
}

println(p.x) // Struct fields are accessed using a dot

// Alternative literal syntax for structs with 3 fields or fewer
p = Point{10, 20}
assert p.x == 10

Heap structs

Structs are allocated on the stack. To allocate a struct on the heap and get a reference to it, use the & prefix:

p := &Point{10, 10}
// References have the same syntax for accessing fields
println(p.x)

The type of p is &Point. It's a reference to Point. References are similar to Go pointers and C++ references.

Embedded structs

V doesn't allow subclassing, but it supports embedded structs:

// TODO: this will be implemented later
struct Button {
    Widget
    title string
}

button := new_button('Click me')
button.set_pos(x, y)

// Without embedding we'd have to do
button.widget.set_pos(x,y)

Default field values

struct Foo {
    n   int      // n is 0 by default
    s   string   // s is '' by default
    a   []int    // a is `[]int{}` by default
    pos int = -1 // custom default value
}

All struct fields are zeroed by default during the creation of the struct. Array and map fields are allocated.

It's also possible to define custom default values.

Short struct literal syntax

mut p := Point{x: 10, y: 20}

// you can omit the struct name when it's already known
p = {x: 30, y: 4}
assert p.y == 4

Omitting the struct name also works for returning a struct literal or passing one as a function argument.

Trailing struct literal arguments

V doesn't have default function arguments or named arguments, for that trailing struct literal syntax can be used instead:

struct ButtonConfig {
    text        string
    is_disabled bool
    width       int = 70
    height      int = 20
}

fn new_button(c ButtonConfig) &Button {
    return &Button{
        width: c.width
	height: c.height
	text: c.text
    }
}

button := new_button(text:'Click me', width:100)
// the height is unset, so it's the default value
assert button.height == 20

As you can see, both the struct name and braces can be omitted, instead of:

new_button(ButtonConfig{text:'Click me', width:100})

This only works for functions that take a struct for the last argument.

Access modifiers

Struct fields are private and immutable by default (making structs immutable as well). Their access modifiers can be changed with pub and mut. In total, there are 5 possible options:

struct Foo {
    a int   // private immutable (default)
mut:
    b int   // private mutable
    c int   // (you can list multiple fields with the same access modifier)
pub:
    d int   // public immutable (readonly)
pub mut:
    e int   // public, but mutable only in parent module
__global:
    f int   // public and mutable both inside and outside parent module
}           // (not recommended to use, that's why the 'global' keyword
            // starts with __)

For example, here's the string type defined in the builtin module:

struct string {
    str byteptr
pub:
    len int
}

It's easy to see from this definition that string is an immutable type. The byte pointer with the string data is not accessible outside builtin at all. The len field is public, but immutable:

fn main() {
    str := 'hello'
    len := str.len // OK
    str.len++      // Compilation error
}

This means that defining public readonly fields is very easy in V, no need in getters/setters or properties.

Methods

struct User {
    age int
}

fn (u User) can_register() bool {
    return u.age > 16
}

user := User{age: 10}
println(user.can_register()) // "false"

user2 := User{age: 20}
println(user2.can_register()) // "true"

V doesn't have classes, but you can define methods on types. A method is a function with a special receiver argument. The receiver appears in its own argument list between the fn keyword and the method name.

In this example, the can_register method has a receiver of type User named u. The convention is not to use receiver names like self or this, but a short, preferably one letter long, name.

Functions 2

Pure functions by default

V functions are pure by default, meaning that their return values are a function of their arguments only, and their evaluation has no side effects (besides I/O).

This is achieved by a lack of global variables and all function arguments being immutable by default, even when references are passed.

V is not a purely functional language however.

There is a compiler flag to enable global variables (--enable-globals), but this is intended for low-level applications like kernels and drivers.

Mutable arguments

It is possible to modify function arguments by using the keyword mut:

struct User {
mut:
    is_registered bool
}

fn (mut u User) register() {
    u.is_registered = true
}

mut user := User{}
println(user.is_registered) // "false"
user.register()
println(user.is_registered) // "true"

In this example, the receiver (which is simply the first argument) is marked as mutable, so register() can change the user object. The same works with non-receiver arguments:

fn multiply_by_2(mut arr []int) {
    for i in 0..arr.len {
        arr[i] *= 2
    }
}

mut nums := [1, 2, 3]
multiply_by_2(mut nums)
println(nums) // "[2, 4, 6]"

Note, that you have to add mut before nums when calling this function. This makes it clear that the function being called will modify the value.

It is preferable to return values instead of modifying arguments. Modifying arguments should only be done in performance-critical parts of your application to reduce allocations and copying.

For this reason V doesn't allow the modification of arguments with primitive types such as integers. Only more complex types such as arrays and maps may be modified.

Use user.register() or user = register(user) instead of register(mut user).

V makes it easy to return a modified version of an object:

fn register(u User) User {
    return { u | is_registered: true }
}

user = register(user)

Anonymous & high order functions

fn sqr(n int) int {
    return n * n
}

fn run(value int, op fn(int) int) int {
    return op(value)
}

fn main()  {
    println(run(5, sqr)) // "25"

    // Anonymous functions can be declared inside other functions:
    double_fn := fn(n int) int {
        return n + n
    }
    println(run(5, double_fn)) // "10"

    // Functions can be passed around without assigning them to variables:
    res := run(5, fn(n int) int {
        return n + n
    })
}

References

fn (foo Foo) bar_method() {
    ...
}

fn bar_function(foo Foo) {
    ...
}

If a function argument is immutable (like foo in the examples above) V can pass it either value or reference. The compiler will determine this by itself, and the developer doesn't need to think about it.

You no longer need to remember whether you should pass the struct by value or by reference.

You can ensure that the struct is always passed by reference by adding &:

fn (foo &Foo) bar() {
    println(foo.abc)
}

foo is still immutable and can't be changed. For that, (mut foo Foo) has to be used.

In general, V's references are similar to Go pointers and C++ references. For example, a tree structure definition would look like this:

struct Node<T> {
    val   T
    left  &Node
    right &Node
}

Constants

const (
    pi    = 3.14
    world = '世界'
)

println(pi)
println(world)

Constants are declared with const. They can only be defined at the module level (outside of functions).

Constant values can never be changed.

V constants are more flexible than in most languages. You can assign more complex values:

struct Color {
        r int
        g int
        b int
}

fn rgb(r, g, b int) Color { return Color{r: r, g: g, b: b} }

const (
    numbers = [1, 2, 3]

    red  = Color{r: 255, g: 0, b: 0}
    // evaluate function call at compile-time
    blue = rgb(0, 0, 255)
)

println(numbers)
println(red)
println(blue)

Global variables are not allowed, so this can be really useful.

println('Top cities: $TOP_CITIES.filter(.usa)')
vs
println('Top cities: $top_cities.filter(.usa)')

println

println is a simple yet powerful builtin function. It can print anything: strings, numbers, arrays, maps, structs.

println(1) // "1"
println('hi') // "hi"
println([1,2,3]) // "[1, 2, 3]"
println(User{name:'Bob', age:20}) // "User{name:'Bob', age:20}"

If you want to define a custom print value for your type, simply define a .str() string method:

struct Color {
    r int
    g int
    b int
}

pub fn (c Color) str() string { return '{$c.r, $c.g, $c.b}' }

red := Color{r: 255, g: 0, b: 0}
println(red)

If you don't want to print a newline, use print() instead.

Modules

V is a very modular language. Creating reusable modules is encouraged and is very simple. To create a new module, create a directory with your module's name and .v files with code:

cd ~/code/modules
mkdir mymodule
vim mymodule/mymodule.v

// mymodule.v
module mymodule

// To export a function we have to use `pub`
pub fn say_hi() {
    println('hello from mymodule!')
}

You can have as many .v files in mymodule/ as you want.

That's it, you can now use it in your code:

module main

import mymodule

fn main() {
    mymodule.say_hi()
}

Note that you have to specify the module every time you call an external function. This may seem verbose at first, but it makes code much more readable and easier to understand, since it's always clear which function from which module is being called. Especially in large code bases.

Module names should be short, under 10 characters. Circular imports are not allowed.

You can create modules anywhere.

All modules are compiled statically into a single executable.

If you want to write a module that will automatically call some setup/initialization code when imported (perhaps you want to call some C library functions), write a module init function inside the module:

fn init() {
    // your setup code here ...
}

The init function cannot be public. It will be called automatically.

Types 2

Interfaces

struct Dog {}
struct Cat {}

fn (d Dog) speak() string {
    return 'woof'
}

fn (c Cat) speak() string {
    return 'meow'
}

interface Speaker {
    speak() string
}

fn perform(s Speaker) string {
    if s is Dog { // use `is` to check the underlying type of an interface
        println('perform(dog)')
    } else if s is Cat {
        println('perform(cat)')
    }
    return s.speak()
}

dog := Dog{}
cat := Cat{}
println(perform(dog)) // "woof"
println(perform(cat)) // "meow"

A type implements an interface by implementing its methods. There is no explicit declaration of intent, no "implements" keyword.

Enums

enum Color {
    red green blue
}

mut color := Color.red
// V knows that `color` is a `Color`. No need to use `color = Color.green` here.
color = .green
println(color) // "1"  TODO: print "green"?

Sum types

A sum type instance can hold a value of several different types. Use the type keyword to declare a sum type:

struct Moon {}
struct Mars {}
struct Venus {}

type World = Moon | Mars | Venus

sum := World(Moon{})

To check whether a sum type instance holds a certain type, use sum is Type. To cast a sum type to one of its variants you can use sum as Type:

fn (m Mars) dust_storm() bool

fn main() {
    mut w := World(Moon{})
    assert w is Moon

    w = Mars{}
    // use `as` to access the Mars instance
    mars := w as Mars
    if mars.dust_storm() {
        println('bad weather!')
    }
}

Matching sum types

You can also use match to determine the variant:

fn open_parachutes(n int)

fn land(w World) {
    match w {
        Moon {} // no atmosphere
        Mars {
            // light atmosphere
            open_parachutes(3)
        }
        Venus {
            // heavy atmosphere
            open_parachutes(1)
        }
    }
}

match must have a pattern for each variant or have an else branch.

There are 2 ways to access the cast variant inside a match branch:

• the shadowed match variable
• using as to specify a variable name

fn (m Moon) moon_walk()
fn (m Mars) shiver()
fn (v Venus) sweat()

fn pass_time(w World) {
    match w {
        // using the shadowed match variable, in this case `w`
        Moon { w.moon_walk() }
        Mars { w.shiver() }
        else {}
    }
    // using `as` to specify a name for each value
    match w as var {
        Mars  { var.shiver() }
        Venus { var.sweat() }
        else {
            // w is of type World
            assert w is Moon
        }
    }
}

Note: shadowing only works when the match expression is a variable. It will not work on struct fields, arrays indexing, or map key lookup.

Option/Result types and error handling

Option types are declared with ?Type:

struct User {
    id int
    name string
}

struct Repo {
    users []User
}

fn (r Repo) find_user_by_id(id int) ?User {
    for user in r.users {
        if user.id == id {
            // V automatically wraps this into an option type
            return user
        }
    }
    return error('User $id not found')
}

fn main() {
    repo := Repo {
        users: [User{1, 'Andrew'}, User {2, 'Bob'}, User {10, 'Charles'}]
    }
    user := repo.find_user_by_id(10) or { // Option types must be handled by `or` blocks
        return
    }
    println(user.id) // "10"
    println(user.name) // "Charles"
}

V combines Option and Result into one type, so you don't need to decide which one to use.

The amount of work required to "upgrade" a function to an optional function is minimal; you have to add a ? to the return type and return an error when something goes wrong.

If you don't need to return an error message, you can simply return none (this is a more efficient equivalent of return error("")).

This is the primary mechanism for error handling in V. They are still values, like in Go, but the advantage is that errors can't be unhandled, and handling them is a lot less verbose. Unlike other languages, V does not handle exceptions with throw/try/catch blocks.

err is defined inside an or block and is set to the string message passed to the error() function. err is empty if none was returned.

user := repo.find_user_by_id(7) or {
    println(err) // "User 7 not found"
    return
}

Handling optionals

There are four ways of handling an optional. The first method is to propagate the error:

import net.http

fn f(url string) ?string {
    resp := http.get(url)?
    return resp.text
}

http.get returns ?http.Response. Because ? follows the call, the error will be propagated to the caller of f. When using ? after a function call producing an optional, the enclosing function must return an optional as well. If error propagation is used in the main() function it will panic instead, since the error cannot be propagated any further.

The body of f is essentially a condensed version of:

    resp := http.get(url) or {
        return error(err)
    }
    return resp.text

---

The second method is to break from execution early:

user := repo.find_user_by_id(7) or {
    return
}

Here, you can either call panic() or exit(), which will stop the execution of the entire program, or use a control flow statement (return, break, continue, etc) to break from the current block. Note that break and continue can only be used inside a for loop.

V does not have a way to forcibly "unwrap" an optional (as other languages do, for instance Rust's unwrap() or Swift's !). To do this, use or { panic(err) } instead.

---

The third method is to provide a default value at the end of the or block. In case of an error, that value would be assigned instead, so it must have the same type as the content of the Option being handled.

fn do_something(s string) ?string {
    if s == 'foo' { return 'foo' }
    return error('invalid string') // Could be `return none` as well
}

a := do_something('foo') or { 'default' } // a will be 'foo'
b := do_something('bar') or { 'default' } // b will be 'default'

---

The fourth method is to use if unwrapping:

if resp := http.get(url) {
    println(resp.text) // resp is a http.Response, not an optional
} else {
    println(err)
}

Above, http.get returns a ?http.Response. resp is only in scope for the first if branch. err is only in scope for the else branch.

Generics

struct Repo<T> {
    db DB
}

fn new_repo<T>(db DB) Repo<T> {
    return Repo<T>{db: db}
}

// This is a generic function. V will generate it for every type it's used with.
fn (r Repo<T>) find_by_id(id int) ?T {
    table_name := T.name // in this example getting the name of the type gives us the table name
    return r.db.query_one<T>('select * from $table_name where id = ?', id)
}

db := new_db()
users_repo := new_repo<User>(db)
posts_repo := new_repo<Post>(db)
user := users_repo.find_by_id(1)?
post := posts_repo.find_by_id(1)?

Concurrency

V's model of concurrency is very similar to Go's. To run foo() concurrently, just call it with go foo(). Right now, it launches the function on a new system thread. Soon coroutines and a scheduler will be implemented.

Unlike Go, V has no channels (yet). Nevertheless, data can be exchanged between a coroutine and the calling thread via a shared variable. This variable should be created as reference and passed to the coroutine as mut. The underlying struct should also contain a mutex to lock concurrent access:

import sync

struct St {
mut:
	x int // share data
	mtx &sync.Mutex
}

fn (mut b St) g() {
	...
	b.mtx.m_lock()
	// read/modify/write b.x
	...
	b.mtx.unlock()
	...
}

fn caller() {
	mut a := &St{ // create as reference so it's on the heap
		x: 10
		mtx: sync.new_mutex()
	}
	go a.g()
	...
	a.mtx.m_lock()
	// read/modify/write a.x
	...
	a.mtx.unlock()
	...
}

Decoding JSON

import json

struct User {
    name string
    age  int

    // Use the `skip` attribute to skip certain fields
    foo Foo [skip]

    // If the field name is different in JSON, it can be specified
    last_name string [json:lastName]
}

data := '{ "name": "Frodo", "lastName": "Baggins", "age": 25 }'
user := json.decode(User, data) or {
    eprintln('Failed to decode json')
    return
}
println(user.name)
println(user.last_name)
println(user.age)

Because of the ubiquitous nature of JSON, support for it is built directly into V.

The json.decode function takes two arguments: the first argument of the json.decode function is the type into which the JSON value should be decoded and the second is a string containing the JSON data.

V generates code for JSON encoding and decoding. No runtime reflection is used. This results in much better performance.

Testing

// hello.v
fn hello() string {
    return 'Hello world'
}

// hello_test.v
fn test_hello() {
    assert hello() == 'Hello world'
}

The assert keyword can be used outside of tests as well.

All test functions have to be placed in files named <some name>_test.v and test function names must begin with test_.

You can also define a special test function: testsuite_begin, which will be run before all other test functions in a _test.v file.

You can also define a special test function: testsuite_end, which will be run after all other test functions in a _test.v file.

To run the tests do v hello_test.v.

To test an entire module, do v test mymodule.

You can also do v test . to test everything inside your current folder (and subdirectories).

You can pass -stats to v test, to see more details about the individual tests in each _test.v file.

Memory management

(Work in progress)

V doesn't use garbage collection or reference counting. The compiler cleans everything up during compilation. If your V program compiles, it's guaranteed that it's going to be leak free. For example:

fn draw_text(s string, x, y int) {
    ...
}

fn draw_scene() {
    ...
    draw_text('hello $name1', 10, 10)
    draw_text('hello $name2', 100, 10)
    draw_text(strings.repeat('X', 10000), 10, 50)
    ...
}

The strings don't escape draw_text, so they are cleaned up when the function exits.

In fact, the first two calls won't result in any allocations at all. These two strings are small, V will use a preallocated buffer for them.

fn test() []int {
    number := 7 // stack variable
    user := User{} // struct allocated on stack
    numbers := [1, 2, 3] // array allocated on heap, will be freed as the function exits
    println(number)
    println(user)
    println(numbers)
    numbers2 := [4, 5, 6] // array that's being returned, won't be freed here
    return numbers2
}

ORM

(This is still in an alpha state)

V has a built-in ORM (object-relational mapping) which supports SQLite, and will soon support MySQL, Postgres, MS SQL, and Oracle.

V's ORM provides a number of benefits:

• One syntax for all SQL dialects. (Migrating between databases becomes much easier.)
• Queries are constructed using V's syntax. (There's no need to learn another syntax.)
• Safety. (All queries are automatically sanitised to prevent SQL injection.)
• Compile time checks. (This prevents typos which can only be caught during runtime.)
• Readability and simplicity. (You don't need to manually parse the results of a query and then manually construct objects from the parsed results.)

struct Customer { // struct name has to be the same as the table name (for now)
    id int // a field named `id` of integer type must be the first field
    name string
    nr_orders int
    country string
}

db := sqlite.connect('customers.db')

// select count(*) from Customer
nr_customers := sql db { select count from Customer }
println('number of all customers: $nr_customers')

// V syntax can be used to build queries
// db.select returns an array
uk_customers := sql db { select from Customer where country == 'uk' && nr_orders > 0 }
println(uk_customers.len)
for customer in uk_customers {
    println('$customer.id - $customer.name')
}

// by adding `limit 1` we tell V that there will be only one object
customer := sql db { select from Customer where id == 1 limit 1 }
println('$customer.id - $customer.name')

// insert a new customer
new_customer := Customer{name: 'Bob', nr_orders: 10}
sql db { insert new_customer into Customer }

For more examples, see vlib/orm/orm_test.v.

Writing Documentation

The way it works is very similar to Go. It's very simple: there's no need to write documentation seperately for your code, vdoc will generate it from docstrings in the source code.

Documentation for each function/type/const must be placed right before the declaration:

// clearall clears all bits in the array
fn clearall() {

}

The comment must start with the name of the definition.

An overview of the module must be placed in the first comment right after the module's name.

To generate documentation use vdoc, for example v doc net.http.

Tools

v fmt

You don't need to worry about formatting your code or setting style guidelines. v fmt takes care of that:

v fmt file.v

It's recommended to set up your editor, so that v fmt -w runs on every save. A vfmt run is usually pretty cheap (takes <30ms).

Always run v fmt -w file.v before pushing your code.

Profiling

V has good support for profiling your programs: v -profile profile.txt run file.v That will produce a profile.txt file, which you can then analyze.

The generated profile.txt file will have lines with 4 columns: a) how many times a function was called b) how much time in total a function took (in ms) c) how much time on average, a call to a function took (in ns) d) the name of the v function

You can sort on column 3 (average time per function) using: sort -n -k3 profile.txt|tail

You can also use stopwatches to measure just portions of your code explicitly:

import time
fn main(){
    sw := time.new_stopwatch({})
    println('Hello world')
    println('Greeting the world took: ${sw.elapsed().nanoseconds()}ns')
}

Advanced Topics

Memory-unsafe code

Sometimes for efficiency you may want to write low-level code that can potentially corrupt memory or be vulnerable to security exploits. V supports writing such code, but not by default.

V requires that any potentially memory-unsafe operations are marked intentionally. Marking them also indicates to anyone reading the code that there could be memory-safety violations if there was a mistake.

Examples of potentially memory-unsafe operations are:

• Pointer arithmetic
• Pointer indexing
• Conversion to pointer from an incompatible type
• Calling certain C functions, e.g. free, strlen and strncmp.

To mark potentially memory-unsafe operations, enclose them in an unsafe block:

// allocate 2 uninitialized bytes & return a reference to them
mut p := unsafe { &byte(malloc(2)) }
p[0] = `h` // Error: pointer indexing is only allowed in `unsafe` blocks
unsafe {
    p[0] = `h`
    p[1] = `i`
}
p++ // Error: pointer arithmetic is only allowed in `unsafe` blocks
unsafe {
    p++ // OK
}
assert *p == `i`

Best practice is to avoid putting memory-safe expressions inside an unsafe block, so that the reason for using unsafe is as clear as possible. Generally any code you think is memory-safe should not be inside an unsafe block, so the compiler can verify it.

If you suspect your program does violate memory-safety, you have a head start on finding the cause: look at the unsafe blocks (and how they interact with surrounding code).

• Note: This is work in progress.

Calling C functions from V

#flag -lsqlite3
#include "sqlite3.h"

// See also the example from https://www.sqlite.org/quickstart.html
struct C.sqlite3{}
struct C.sqlite3_stmt{}

type FnSqlite3Callback fn(voidptr, int, &charptr, &charptr) int

fn C.sqlite3_open(charptr, &&C.sqlite3) int
fn C.sqlite3_close(&C.sqlite3) int
fn C.sqlite3_column_int(stmt &C.sqlite3_stmt, n int) int
// ... you can also just define the type of parameter & leave out the C. prefix
fn C.sqlite3_prepare_v2(&sqlite3, charptr, int, &&sqlite3_stmt, &charptr) int
fn C.sqlite3_step(&sqlite3_stmt)
fn C.sqlite3_finalize(&sqlite3_stmt)
fn C.sqlite3_exec(db &sqlite3, sql charptr, FnSqlite3Callback, cb_arg voidptr, emsg &charptr) int
fn C.sqlite3_free(voidptr)

fn my_callback(arg voidptr, howmany int, cvalues &charptr, cnames &charptr) int {
    for i in 0..howmany {
	    print('| ${cstring_to_vstring(cnames[i])}: ${cstring_to_vstring(cvalues[i]):20} ')
	}
    println('|')
    return 0
}

fn main() {
    db := &C.sqlite3(0) // this means `sqlite3* db = 0`
    C.sqlite3_open('users.db', &db) // passing a string literal to a C function call results in a C string, not a V string
    // C.sqlite3_open(db_path.str, &db) // you can also use `.str byteptr` field to convert a V string to a C char pointer
    query := 'select count(*) from users'
    stmt := &C.sqlite3_stmt(0)
    C.sqlite3_prepare_v2(db, query.str, - 1, &stmt, 0)
    C.sqlite3_step(stmt)
    nr_users := C.sqlite3_column_int(stmt, 0)
    C.sqlite3_finalize(stmt)
    println('There are $nr_users users in the database.')
    //
    error_msg := charptr(0)
    query_all_users := 'select * from users'
    rc := C.sqlite3_exec(db, query_all_users.str, my_callback, 7, &error_msg)
    if rc != C.SQLITE_OK {
        eprintln( cstring_to_vstring(error_msg) )
        C.sqlite3_free(error_msg)
    }
    C.sqlite3_close(db)
}

#flag

Add #flag directives to the top of your V files to provide C compilation flags like:

• -I for adding C include files search paths
• -l for adding C library names that you want to get linked
• -L for adding C library files search paths
• -D for setting compile time variables

You can use different flags for different targets. Currently the linux, darwin , freebsd, and windows flags are supported.

NB: Each flag must go on its own line (for now)

#flag linux -lsdl2
#flag linux -Ivig
#flag linux -DCIMGUI_DEFINE_ENUMS_AND_STRUCTS=1
#flag linux -DIMGUI_DISABLE_OBSOLETE_FUNCTIONS=1
#flag linux -DIMGUI_IMPL_API=

Including C code

You can also include C code directly in your V module. For example, let's say that your C code is located in a folder named 'c' inside your module folder. Then:

• Put a v.mod file inside the toplevel folder of your module (if you created your module with v new you already have v.mod file). For example:

Module {
	name: 'mymodule',
	description: 'My nice module wraps a simple C library.',
	version: '0.0.1'
	dependencies: []
}

• Add these lines to the top of your module:

#flag -I @VROOT/c
#flag @VROOT/c/implementation.o
#include "header.h"

NB: @VROOT will be replaced by V with the nearest parent folder, where there is a v.mod file. Any .v file beside or below the folder where the v.mod file is, can use #flag @VROOT/abc to refer to this folder. The @VROOT folder is also prepended to the module lookup path, so you can import other modules under your @VROOT, by just naming them.

The instructions above will make V look for an compiled .o file in your module folder/c/implementation.o. If V finds it, the .o file will get linked to the main executable, that used the module. If it does not find it, V assumes that there is a @VROOT/c/implementation.c file, and tries to compile it to a .o file, then will use that.

This allows you to have C code, that is contained in a V module, so that its distribution is easier. You can see a complete minimal example for using C code in a V wrapper module here: project_with_c_code.

You can use -cflags to pass custom flags to the backend C compiler. You can also use -cc to change the default C backend compiler. For example: -cc gcc-9 -cflags -fsanitize=thread.

C types

Ordinary zero terminated C strings can be converted to V strings with string(cstring) or string(cstring, len).

NB: Each string(...) function does NOT create a copy of the cstring, so you should NOT free it after calling string(). If you need to make a copy of the C string (some libc APIs like getenv pretty much require that, since they return pointers to internal libc memory), you can use cstring_to_vstring(cstring).

On Windows, C APIs often return so called wide strings (utf16 encoding). These can be converted to V strings with string_from_wide(&u16(cwidestring)) .

V has these types for easier interoperability with C:

• voidptr for C's void*,
• byteptr for C's byte* and
• charptr for C's char*.
• &charptr for C's char**

To cast a voidptr to a V reference, use user := &User(user_void_ptr).

voidptr can also be dereferenced into a V struct through casting: user := User(user_void_ptr).

socket.v has an example which calls C code from V .

Debugging generated C code

To debug issues in the generated C code, you can pass these flags:

• -cg - produces a less optimized executable with more debug information in it.
• -showcc - prints the C command that is used to build the program.

For the best debugging experience, you can pass all of them at the same time: v -cg -showcc yourprogram.v , then just run your debugger (gdb/lldb) or IDE on the produced executable yourprogram.

If you just want to inspect the generated C code, without further compilation, you can also use the -o flag (e.g. -o file.c). This will make V produce the file.c then stop.

If you want to see the generated C source code for just a single C function, for example main, you can use: -printfn main -o file.c .

To see a detailed list of all flags that V supports, use v help, v help build, v help build-c .

Conditional compilation

$if windows {
    println('Windows')
}
$if linux {
    println('Linux')
}
$if macos {
    println('macOS')
}

$if debug {
    println('debugging')
}

If you want an if to be evaluated at compile time it must be prefixed with a $ sign. Right now it can only be used to detect an OS or a -debug compilation option.

Compile time pseudo variables

V also gives your code access to a set of pseudo string variables, that are substituted at compile time:

• @FN => replaced with the name of the current V function
• @MOD => replaced with the name of the current V module
• @STRUCT => replaced with the name of the current V struct
• @FILE => replaced with the path of the V source file
• @LINE => replaced with the V line number where it appears (as a string).
• @COLUMN => replaced with the column where it appears (as a string).
• @VEXE => replaced with the path to the V compiler
• @VHASH => replaced with the shortened commit hash of the V compiler (as a string).
• @VMOD_FILE => replaced with the contents of the nearest v.mod file (as a string).

That allows you to do the following example, useful while debugging/logging/tracing your code:

eprintln( 'file: ' + @FILE + ' | line: ' + @LINE + ' | fn: ' + @MOD + '.' + @FN)

Another example, is if you want to embed the version/name from v.mod inside your executable:

import v.vmod
vm := vmod.decode( @VMOD_FILE ) or { panic(err) }
eprintln('$vm.name $vm.version\n $vm.description')

Performance tuning

The generated C code is usually fast enough, when you compile your code with -prod. There are some situations though, where you may want to give additional hints to the C compiler, so that it can further optimize some blocks of code.

NB: These are rarely needed, and should not be used, unless you profile your code, and then see that there are significant benefits for them. To cite gcc's documentation: "programmers are notoriously bad at predicting how their programs actually perform".

[inline] - you can tag functions with [inline], so the C compiler will try to inline them, which in some cases, may be beneficial for performance, but may impact the size of your executable.

if _likely_(bool expression) { this hints the C compiler, that the passed boolean expression is very likely to be true, so it can generate assembly code, with less chance of branch misprediction. In the JS backend, that does nothing.

if _unlikely_(bool expression) { similar to _likely_(x), but it hints that the boolean expression is highly improbable. In the JS backend, that does nothing.

Reflection via codegen

Having built-in JSON support is nice, but V also allows you to create efficient serializers for any data format:

// TODO: not implemented yet
fn decode<T>(data string) T {
    mut result := T{}
    for field in T.fields {
        if field.typ == 'string' {
            result.$field = get_string(data, field.name)
        } else if field.typ == 'int' {
            result.$field = get_int(data, field.name)
        }
    }
    return result
}

// generates to:
fn decode_User(data string) User {
    mut result := User{}
    result.name = get_string(data, 'name')
    result.age = get_int(data, 'age')
    return result
}

Limited operator overloading

struct Vec {
    x int
    y int
}

fn (a Vec) str() string {
    return '{$a.x, $a.y}'
}

fn (a Vec) + (b Vec) Vec {
    return Vec {
        a.x + b.x,
        a.y + b.y
    }
}

fn (a Vec) - (b Vec) Vec {
    return Vec {
        a.x - b.x,
        a.y - b.y
    }
}

fn main() {
    a := Vec{2, 3}
    b := Vec{4, 5}
    println(a + b) // "{6, 8}"
    println(a - b) // "{-2, -2}"
}

Operator overloading goes against V's philosophy of simplicity and predictability. But since scientific and graphical applications are among V's domains, operator overloading is an important feature to have in order to improve readability:

a.add(b).add(c.mul(d)) is a lot less readable than a + b + c * d.

To improve safety and maintainability, operator overloading is limited:

• It's only possible to overload +, -, *, /, % operators.
• Calling other functions inside operator functions is not allowed.
• Operator functions can't modify their arguments.
• Both arguments must have the same type (just like with all operators in V).

Inline assembly

TODO: not implemented yet

fn main() {
    a := 10
    asm x64 {
        mov eax, [a]
        add eax, 10
        mov [a], eax
    }
}

Translating C/C++ to V

TODO: translating C to V will be available in V 0.3. C++ to V will be available later this year.

V can translate your C/C++ code to human readable V code. Let's create a simple program test.cpp first:

#include <vector>
#include <string>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
        std::vector<std::string> s;
        s.push_back("V is ");
        s.push_back("awesome");
        std::cout << s.size() << std::endl;
        return 0;
}

Run v translate test.cpp and V will generate test.v:

fn main {
    mut s := []string{}
    s << 'V is '
    s << 'awesome'
    println(s.len)
}

An online C/C++ to V translator is coming soon.

When should you translate C code and when should you simply call C code from V?

If you have well-written, well-tested C code, then of course you can always simply call this C code from V.

Translating it to V gives you several advantages:

• If you plan to develop that code base, you now have everything in one language, which is much safer and easier to develop in than C.
• Cross-compilation becomes a lot easier. You don't have to worry about it at all.
• No more build flags and include files either.

Hot code reloading

module main

import time
import os

[live]
fn print_message() {
    println('Hello! Modify this message while the program is running.')
}

fn main() {
    for {
        print_message()
        time.sleep_ms(500)
    }
}

Build this example with v -live message.v.

Functions that you want to be reloaded must have [live] attribute before their definition.

Right now it's not possible to modify types while the program is running.

More examples, including a graphical application: github.com/vlang/v/tree/master/examples/hot_code_reload.

Cross compilation

To cross compile your project simply run

v -os windows .

or

v -os linux .

(Cross compiling for macOS is temporarily not possible.)

If you don't have any C dependencies, that's all you need to do. This works even when compiling GUI apps using the ui module or graphical apps using gg.

You will need to install Clang, LLD linker, and download a zip file with libraries and include files for Windows and Linux. V will provide you with a link.

Cross-platform shell scripts in V

V can be used as an alternative to Bash to write deployment scripts, build scripts, etc.

The advantage of using V for this is the simplicity and predictability of the language, and cross-platform support. "V scripts" run on Unix-like systems as well as on Windows.

Use the .vsh file extension. It will make all functions in the os module global (so that you can use ls() instead of os.ls(), for example).

#!/usr/local/bin/v run
// The shebang above associates the file to V on Unix-like systems,
// so it can be run just by specifying the path to the file
// once it's made executable using `chmod +x`.

rm('build/*')
// Same as:
for file in ls('build/') {
    rm(file)
}

mv('*.v', 'build/')
// Same as:
for file in ls('.') {
    if file.ends_with('.v') {
        mv(file, 'build/')
    }
}

Now you can either compile this like a normal V program and get an executable you can deploy and run anywhere: v deploy.vsh && ./deploy

Or just run it more like a traditional Bash script: v run deploy.vsh

On Unix-like platforms, the file can be run directly after making it executable using chmod +x: ./deploy.vsh

Attributes

V has several attributes that modify the behavior of functions and structs.

An attribute is specified inside [] right before the function/struct declaration and applies only to the following definition.

// Calling this function will result in a deprecation warning
[deprecated]
fn old_function() {}

// This function's calls will be inlined.
[inline]
fn inlined_function() {}

// The following struct can only be used as a reference (`&Window`) and allocated on the heap.
[ref_only]
struct Window {
}

// V will not generate this function and all its calls if the provided flag is false.
// To use a flag, use `v -d flag`
[if debug]
fn foo() { }

fn bar() {
   foo() // will not be called if `-d debug` is not passed
}

// For C interop only, tells V that the following struct is defined with `typedef struct` in C
[typedef]
struct C.Foo { }

// Used in Win32 API code when you need to pass callback function
[windows_stdcall]
fn C.DefWindowProc(hwnd int, msg int, lparam int, wparam int)

Appendices

Appendix I: Keywords

V has 29 keywords (3 are literals):

as
assert
break
const
continue
defer
else
enum
false
fn
for
go
goto
if
import
in
interface
is
match
module
mut
none
or
pub
return
struct
true
type
unsafe

See also Types.

Appendix II: Operators

This lists operators for primitive types only.

+    sum                    integers, floats, strings
-    difference             integers, floats
*    product                integers, floats
/    quotient               integers, floats
%    remainder              integers

&    bitwise AND            integers
|    bitwise OR             integers
^    bitwise XOR            integers

<<   left shift             integer << unsigned integer
>>   right shift            integer >> unsigned integer


Precedence    Operator
    5             *  /  %  <<  >>  &
    4             +  -  |  ^
    3             ==  !=  <  <=  >  >=
    2             &&
    1             ||


Assignment Operators
+=   -=   *=   /=   %=
&=   |=   ^=
>>=  <<=